Rechargeable batteries that use ammonium cations as charge carriers could provide a sustainable alternative to metal-ion-based batteries such as lithium-ion, the team said.
Metal-ion batteries are the go-to energy storage solution, dominating the market for portable consumer electronics and electric vehicles due to their high energy density and versatility. However, metal ions used in the electrolytes come from lithium and declining resources which threatens long-term availability. Their toxicity and flammability can also be unsafe and harmful to the environment.
There have been several attempts to generate ammonium-ion-based batteries to solve sustainability and environmental issues because these cations are lightweight and easy to synthesise and recycle.
However, ammonium cations are prone to reduction into hydrogen and ammonia at low operation potential, preventing the batteries from achieving their full potential. They also dissolve readily in electrolytes, making them difficult to incorporate into electrode materials.
According to Husam Alshareef, postdoc Zhiming Zhao and coworkers, the team developed a high-efficiency metal-free battery by combining an ammonium-cation-containing electrolyte with carbon-based electrodes. The graphite cathode and the organic semiconductor anode are cheap, environmentally friendly and renewable, Zhao said.
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With the ammonium cations, the researchers chose hexafluorophosphate ions as negative charge carriers and exploited the ability of graphite to reversibly accommodate these anions within its layers to create a ‘dual-ion’ battery. In the battery, cations and anions simultaneously insert into their corresponding electrode during charge cycles and are released into the electrolyte during discharge cycles.
“We designed an electrolyte that is both antioxidative and antireductive by screening a series of solvents resistant to high voltage and also taking into account its reduction stability,” Zhao said in a statement.
The antioxidative solvent mainly solvated anions participating in the cathode reaction, while its antireductive counterpart formed a solvation sphere around cations involved in the anode reaction. Zhao explained that the configuration is crucial for battery stability.
The KAUST (King Abdullah University of Science and Technology) team found that the battery outperformed existing ammonium-ion-based analogues with a record operation voltage of 2.75 volts.
“It is now possible to develop high-energy non-metallic ion batteries that can compete with metal-ion batteries,” Zhao said.
The team is currently working to enhance the performance to get closer to large-scale applications. Zhao added that they are exploring anode materials with a higher capacity, crucial for improving the energy density.
“To eventually completely decarbonise the grid, the battery costs must significantly come down”, added Alshareef. The team believes that replacing lithium with non-metallic charge carriers, such as ammonium ions, can help lower these costs.
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